(September 1995) Uranium production figures are still not freely available in all countries. The statistics published by OECD on a regular basis (the last in 1994) still show major gaps, in particular for the former Soviet Union and China.

Three European countries are found within the top seven in the thus incomplete world ranking list of uranium producing countries with the highest total production since World War II: Germany (East), Czechoslovakia, and France. The European uranium producing countries together have produced more uranium than any other country.

Since the rapid decline of uranium prices in the early eighties and the political changes in the late eighties, the situation has changed very much. Uranium is now no longer produced for political reasons without concern for cost, and only the most cost-effective production centers survive. Furthermore, the large stockpile accumulated during the Cold War era is now being sold on the market. The most recent figures available are those for the year 1992: They indicate the new situation; but the changes were still in course in 1992.

(September 1995) In addition to the hazards of conventional mining, uranium miners are exposed to the risk of contracting lung cancer; this results from the inhalation of radioactive dusts and the radioactive gas radon. Radon-222 is formed from the decay of radium-226, a radionuclide contained in the uranium ore. Investigations (for example the study [Sevc1988] conducted on Czech uranium miners) show a sixfold increase of lung cancer risk with uranium miners; but also other respiratory diseases show higher incidences. Lung cancer typically develops with a latency period of 15 to 30 years; the link between occupational exposure in a uranium mine and the incidence of the disease therefore is not always obvious.

During the early "wild" years of uranium mining, protective measures for the miners were rarely taken worldwide. Miners in these early years thus took the highest risk of contracting lung cancer. In the year 1955, radon concentrations in Wismut's mines typically were approximately 100,000 Bq/m³, with peaks of 1.5 million Bq/m³ [Jacobi1992]. From the end of the fifties, the ore was kept wet during drilling to avoid generation of dust, and the mines were intensively ventilated to lower the radon concentrations. The doses received from radon decay products thus decreased from 150 WLM to 4 WLM per year (WLM = Working Level Month is a unit for the dose from radon decay products, which are causative for cancer development).

In the Rumanian uranium mine Avram Iancu high radon concentrations of up to 60,000 Bq/m³were even monitored in recent times, due to insufficient ventilation of the mine [RSRP1993].

According to [Jacobi1992], the doses received in Wismut's mines in the early years should not be estimated at 150 WLM, but at 200 WLM per year. The true value can hardly be determined, since Wismut never performed direct individual monitoring of the doses received by the miners. Before 1955, no monitoring was performed at all - only estimates can be made for this early period. Later, radon decay product concentrations were sampled at representative locations within the mines for short periods of time. The doses received by the miners were calculated from these sampling results. While this method allows a certain overview on the doses received, its results cannot be compared with those of continuous individual monitoring.

In France, however, individual dose meters are used from 1983. From 1989, they are obligatory for all miners who risk exceeding 30 % of the radiation dose limit. [Tirmarche1993], [Bernhard1991]

Between 1946 and 1990, 7163 uranium miners who had been employed with Wismut died from lung cancer. For 5237 of them, the occupational exposure was recognized as the cause of the disease [AKURA1993]. Until mid-1990, the limit for recognition was 450 WLM; then it was lowered to 200 WLM. One year of work in the uranium mines during the early years is therefore already sufficient to attribute an observed lung cancer to the occupational exposure.

An assessment of international studies on lung cancer incidences with uranium miners showed that with reference to age at exposure and age at cancer incidence, even a total exposure of only 40 WLM can be sufficient to be regarded causative. Such a dose could also be obtained by work exclusively during the mine's later years, while the recognition was so far granted only for work during the mine's early years. At exposures of 150 WLM and higher, an observed lung cancer can be attributed to the work in the uranium mines, practically independent of the exposure history. [Jacobi1992]

A specific situation is given for the workers employed in the final stage of the uranium mills. Since they handle the concentrated final product, their main risk results from inhalation of contaminated dust. For these workers, the most severe hazards result from the chemical toxicity of the uranium, causing kidney function deterioration.

(September 1995) Uranium ore is produced in open pit or underground mines. The ore grades often are only 0.1 %; large amounts of ore have to be mined to obtain the amounts of uranium required. In the early years after World War II, uranium was mostly mined from deposits located close to the surface, while mining later continued into the deeper underground. With the decline of uranium prices on the world market, underground mining became too expensive for most deposits, and many mines have been shut down since then.

During the active mining period, large amounts of air contaminated with radon and dust are blown into the open air, for example 7426 million m³ (i.e. 235 m³/s) of contaminated air alone at Schlema-Alberoda (Saxony, Germany) in 1993, with average radon concentrations of 96,000 Bq/m³. While lowering the doses for the miners, these ventilation efforts increase the levels for residents living near the ventilation shafts. These high levels continue after the shutdown of the mines, as long as they are still ventilated during decommissioning works and not yet flooded. In April 1992, the radon levels for residential areas of the town of Schlema in Saxony were significantly lowered by a change of the ventilation shaft: the contaminated air is now blown into open air at a remote place.

In Bulgaria, a shut-down uranium mine is located immediately neighbouring the village of Eleshnitza. It causes high radon concentrations in free air. It is anticipated that 0.3 to 1 lung cancer incidences annually are caused by the mine in the 2600 residents of the village. [Vapirev1994]

From the shutdown uranium mine of Zirovski Vrh in Slovenia, air containing radon concentrations of 5000 Bq/m³ flows into the surrounding valleys and causes high doses for residents, when air exchange is low due to climatic conditions [Peter1994].

Radon and dust, blown out by the mine's ventilation, do not only cause direct dose loads for the residents by inhalation: an investigation of various food samples grown in the Ronneburg (Thuringia) uranium mining district showed that by the consumption of local food the highest dose by far of 0.33 mSv (33 mrem) per year is caused from wheat grown near a ventilation shaft [Schmidt1994].

Large amounts of groundwater are pumped out of the mines, to keep them dry during mining operations. The water is released into rivers, creeks and lakes. In the sediments of rivers in the Ronneburg area, concentrations of radium and uranium around 3000 Bq/kg were found, indicating up to 100-fold increases over natural background [Hanisch1994].

In the Czech Republic, a continued contamination of the sediments of the Ploucnice river was caused from the insufficient water treatment of the Hamr I uranium mine water releases before 1989. The river sediments and flooding areas are contaminated over a length of approximately 30 km [Andel1993]. The doses received from gamma radiation, reach peak levels of 3.1 Gy/h; that is 30 times background levels.

In the Lergue river in France, the waste waters of the Le Bosc uranium mining complex (Hérault) have caused concentrations of radium-226 in sediments of 13,000 Bq/kg; that corresponds to the concentrations found in uranium ores [Descamps1988]. From the reference it cannot be concluded whether these levels are caused by the mines themselves, by the uranium mill, or by the uranium mill tailings deposits.

In the old mining areas in the Ore Mountains, the problems resulting from uranium mining are commingled with those resulting from historic mining - mining haven taken place in the medieval age. In Schneeberg for example, extremely high concentrations of radon are found in homes: in living rooms, 20,000 Bq/m³ are not uncommon, while up to 100,000 Bq/m³ are found in basements [Keller1991]. These levels are, in part, caused by the direct access to former underground mine workings existing in the basements of many houses, or by other radon pathways from the mines to the basements. Since there is no scientific consensus on the lung cancer risk from such elevated radon levels in homes, a number of epidemiologic studies are being performed worldwide on this subject at present. First preliminary investigations in the East German uranium mining province show elevated lung cancer incidences with men in several towns; they are attributed to occupational exposure in the uranium industry. But, in Schlema and Schneeberg, elevated incidence rates of lung cancer were also found with women [Heinemann1992]. Therefore, a detailed investigation is now being undertaken on the lung cancer risk in homes in Thuringia and Saxony [Heinrich1992].

In the Dresden-Freital area, hard coal containing uranium was mined for fuel use from 1542. From 1952-1955 and 1967-1989, the same coal was mined by Wismut for uranium. Consequently, there is also a problem of both wastes from uranium mining, and from historic mining in this area, especially from the coal ashes.

Waste rock is produced in open pit mines when removing the overburden, and in underground mines when driving galleries through non-ore zones. Piles of so-called waste rock often contain elevated concentrations of radionuclides compared to normal rock. Other piles contain low grade ores, with grades too low for processing in a mill. The transition between waste rock, low grade ore, and ore is fluent and depends on the technological and economic constraints.

All these piles present hazards to residents and the environment, even after the shutdown of the mines, due to their release of radon gas into the air, and to their release of toxic and radioactive contaminants by seepage into groundwater.

The waste rock piles of the uranium mines in the Schlema/Aue area contain a volume of 47 million m³ and cover an area of 343 hectares. The waste rock often was dumped on the valley's slopes. In many instances, they are located in the immmediate neighbourhood of residential areas. Consequently, high radon concentrations in free air around 100 Bq/m³ are found in large areas of Schlema, in some quarters even above 300 Bq/m³. The independent Ecology Institute has calculated a lifetime excess lung cancer risk of 20 cases (and 60 cases respectively) per 1000 inhabitants from these concentrations [Küppers1994]. This is the extra risk caused from radiation, in addition to the risk caused from natural background or other sources. Moreover, much higher peak concentrations of radon may result from climatic inversion conditions in the narrow valleys.

For the southern parts of the town of Ronneburg, the Ecology Institute calculated a lifetime excess lung cancer risk of 15 cases per 1000 inhabitants. Since radon spreads rapidly with the wind, the risk must also be considered for the residents in the wider surroundings: the Ecology Institute calculated an excess lung cancer incidence of 6 cases per year within a radius of 400 km. [Küppers1994]

Seepage is another problem presented by the waste rock piles; in some cases, even creeks were simply buried under the piles. The seepage releases of the waste rock piles in the Schlema/Aue area are estimated at 2 million m³ per year, half of which flows into groundwater. Only a small fraction of the other half is captured at the foot of the piles.

So-called waste rock was often processed into gravel or cement for use in road and railroad construction. The Saxonian Hartsteinwerke Oelsnitz alone, for example, have processed 7.58 million tonnes at uranium concentrations of up to 100 g per tonne. Baukombinat Zwickau used 14.4 million tonnes of material from the waste rock pile of the Crossen uranium mill for road construction, at uranium concentrations of up to 150 g per tonne and radium concentrations of up to 1.3 Bq/g [BT1992a]. The radioactivity thereby was dispersed over large areas. For some part of the material, a follow-up of the use is not possible.

In Czechoslovakia, material at uranium concentrations up to 200 g per tonne, and radium concentrations of up to 2.22 Bq/g, was approved for road construction until 1991 [Andel1994].

In some instances, low grade ores are processed in the heap leaching technology; it is used if the grade is too low for a cost-effective treatment in an uranium mill. The leaching liquid (often sulfuric acid) is pumped to the top of the piles, from where it percolates through the ore and reaches a liner installed under the pile. From there, the uranium bearing liquid is captured and conducted to a processing plant. At the site of Le Cellier (Lozère, France), the leaching process was accelerated, and the uranium recovery was enhanced, by injection of the leaching liquid directly into the piles.

Heap leaching of low grade ores was performed on a large scale at Wismut's Gessental-pile at Ronneburg (7 million tonnes) and in Königstein (2 million tonnes); and at the Hungarian site of Pécs (2-3 million tonnes); and also on a small scale also in Mähring in Bavaria (15,000 tonnes), among others.

During operation, these heap-leaching piles present hazards due to the release of dust, radon gas and, possibly, leaching liquid seepage. After termination of the operation, a permanent hazard may persist due to natural leaching processes taking place, if the material piled up contains the mineral of pyrite (FeS₂): Then, precipitation together with inflow of air can cause the continuous formation of sulfuric acid within the pile, leading to a permanent leaching of uranium and other contaminants, presenting a groundwater hazard for centuries.

In the case of in-situ leaching, the uranium-bearing ore is not removed from its geological deposit, but a leaching liquid is injected through wells into the ore deposit, and the uranium bearing liquid is pumped from other wells. The leaching liquid contains the leaching agent ammonium carbonate for example or - particularly in Europe - sulfuric acid. This method can only be applied if the uranium deposit is located in porous rock, confined in impermeable rock layers.

In-situ leaching gains importance with decreasing uranium prices. For economic reasons, it is the only technology used in the United States today (for example), the country with the highest cumulative uranium production so far. In Saxony, an underground mine converted to an in-situ leaching facility was in operation at Königstein near Dresden until end 1990. On a small scale, in-situ leaching was also used in the Ronneburg (Thuringia) uranium province. In the Czech Republic, in-situ leaching was used on a large scale at Stráz pod Ralskem in North Bohemia. In Bulgaria, in-situ leaching was in use at 8 locations.

The advantages of this technology are:

• the reduced hazards for the employees from accidents and radiation,
• the low cost;
• no need for large uranium mill tailings deposits.

The disadvantages of the in-situ leaching technology are:

• the risk of spreading of leaching liquid outside of the uranium deposit, involving subsequent groundwater contamination,
• the unpredictable impact of the leaching liquid on the rock of the deposit,
• the production of certain amounts of waste slurries and waste water during recovery of the uranium from the liquid,
• the impossibility of restoring natural groundwater conditions after completion of the leaching operations.

In the case of Königstein, a total of 100,000 tonnes of sulfuric acid was injected with the leaching liquid into the ore deposit. At present, 1.9 million m³ of leaching liquid are still locked in the pores of the rock leached so far; a further 0.85 million m³ are circulating between the leaching zone and the recovery plant. The liquid contains high contaminant concentrations, for example, expressed as multiples of the drinking water standards: cadmium 400x, arsenic 280x, nickel 130x, uranium 83x, etc. This liquid presents a hazard to an aquifer that is of importance for the drinking water supply of the region.

Groundwater impact is much larger at the North Bohemian in-situ leaching site of Stráz pod Ralskem: 28.7 million m³ of contaminated liquid is contained in the leaching zone, covering an area of 5.74 km2. This zone contains a total of 1.5 million tonnes of sulphate, 37,500 tonnes of ammonium, and others. In addition to the chemicals needed for the leaching operation (including 3.7 million tonnes of sulfuric acid, among others), 100,000 tonnes of ammonium were injected; they were a waste product resulting from the recovery of uranium from the leaching liquid. Moreover, the contaminated liquid has spread out beyond the leaching zone horizontally and vertically, thus contaminating another area of 28 km2 and a further 235 million m³ of groundwater. To the southwest, the groundwater contamination has already reached the second zone of groundwater protection of the potable water supply of the town of Mimon. In southeastern direction, the contaminated groundwater is still at a distance of 1.2 - 1.5 km from the second zone of groundwater protection of the Dolánky potable water wells, which supply 200 l/s for the city of Liberec [Andel1993]. The migration of the contaminated liquids in a easterly direction towards the Hamr I underground mine is at present intercepted by a hydraulic barrier: decontaminated water is injected into a chain of wells to prevent further migration of the contaminated groundwater.

In Bulgaria, a total of 2.5 million tonnes of sulfuric acid was injected into the ore deposits treated by in-situ leaching [Vapirev1994]. Some in-situ leaching facilities (for example Okop-Tenebo) are located close to drinking water wells. It seems that the environmental impacts of in-situ leaching of uranium have not drawn much attention so far in Bulgaria.

The uranium ore produced in open pit and underground mines is processed in uranium mills to recover the uranium. These mills are, in most cases, built near the mines and comprise a mechanical and a chemical treatment. In the first step, the ore is crushed and ground, then it is leached in a hydrometallurgical process. In most cases, sulfuric acid is used as a leaching agent, but carbonate (alkaline) leaching is also used. Since the leaching agent leaches not only uranium from the ore, but also other constituents such as molybdenum, vanadium, selenium, iron, lead, and arsenic, the uranium has to be recovered from the liquid by ion exchange. The final product of the milling process is Yellow Cake, a compound containing uranium in the form of U³O8 and impurities. This final product is packed in casks and shipped to the customers for further processing.

During operation, uranium mills present a hazard, in particular due to the release of radioactive dusts.

During the decommissioning of uranium mills, large amounts of radioactively contaminated metal scrap have to be dealt with and must be disposed of safely. In the case of the decommissioning of the Crossen uranium mill, Wismut plans to dump large amounts of metal scrap in the Helmsdorf uranium mill tailings deposit, to save cost. But, due to chemical reactions taking place between tailings and scrap, gases develop and may deteriorate the safe long-term disposal of the tailings. A further 20,000 tonnes of metal scrap, at a surface contamination of less than 0.5 Bq/cm², are to be smelted like normal scrap and are to be recycled.

The residues of the milling process, the uranium mill tailings, have the form of a slurry. They are usually pumped to settling ponds for final disposal.

An exception is the Bukhovo mill in Bulgaria, where the slurries were simply dumped in a glen between 1947 and 1958; the finer particles flew into a nearby river. During heavy precipitation, the dumped material was spread over a wider area, contaminating an agricultural area of 120 hectares. Gamma dose rates of up to 1000 µR/h were monitored; this is about hundredfold times the background value. After 1958, the most severely contaminated areas were fenced. But the fences deteriorated later, and the areas were in part reused for agriculture. Radium concentrations of up to 1077 Bq/kg were found in cereals grown on these areas. [Vapirev1994], [Dimtchev1991]

According to the calculating rules prescribed by the radiation protection regulations effective in the Western part of Germany, consumption of these cereals would result in an annual dose of 74 mSv (7400 mrem), while the admissible dose in the German uranium mining area is 1 mSv (100 mrem).

Settling ponds for uranium mill tailings are either installed in existing depressions, or, dams are built for that particular purpose. In France, the tailings are often dumped in former open pit uranium mines.

The largest such settling ponds in Europe are the Culmitzsch tailings dam near Seelingstädt (Thuringia), containing 90 million tonnes of solids, and the Helmsdorf tailings dam in Oberrothenbach near Zwickau (Saxony), containing 50 million tonnes of solids. The Culmitzsch dam was erected on the site of a mined-out open pit uranium mine, the capacity of which was enlarged by additional dams. The Helmsdorf dam was erected as a barrier on the place of the village by the same name, which was completely destroyed for the dam. In the Western part of Germany, there exists only one small tailings dam with a content of 170,000 tonnes, at the Ellweiler uranium mill.

(September 1995) Before any work for the long term management of the mines, waste piles, and mill tailings can be started, a comprehensive investigation of the environmental impacts that have already occured, and of potential future hazards must be carried out.

The reclamation goals must be defined in parallel. Since the health of the residents living in the area now, and of future generations is affected, the fundamental requirements can only be defined by legislation, not by regulations issued by agencies, nor by any commissions without a legal mission.

Based on the legal provisions for the reclamation goals, the reclamation concepts can be elaborated. These must undergo a critical review, including participation of the public, concerned communities, independent experts and environmental organizations, before the decision between various management options is made, and the concepts are realized.

During the first phase of investigations and planning, only such steps should be undertaken that are necessary for protection from immediate hazards, and respective of not interfering with long-term management. These include the as-complete-as-possible collection and treatment of all seepage, or the location and collection of contaminated material outside the site borders.

In Germany, the reclamation of the uranium mining legacy in the Eastern German uranium district is not subject to the nuclear law. Therefore, no public hearings take place, as are known with other nuclear projects. Neither are environmental organizations involved in the decision processes, as is known with other large-scale projects of environmental importance; so far, they were only invited to give their comments on the decommissioning concept for the Königstein mine, since this is located in an environmental conservation area.

Another problem is the access to environmental data gathered about the aftermath of uranium mining. For those sites that are still owned by Wismut, the data is gathered by Wismut itself; for those sites that were returned to the local authorities before 1962, the Federal Radiation Protection Agency (BfS) performs the monitoring. For its sites, Wismut only publishes rather general annual reports, while BfS has not yet published any results at all. In other countries, such as Poland and Rumania, all information concerning uranium mining is still subject to secrecy.

In each country concerned, the legal basis for reclamation must be created, since the existing legal regulations are insufficient in all European countries. This should be done cooperatively to insure uniform standards. The basic requirements for reclamation must be laid down in law:

Reclamation goals

• Definition of the categories of persons to be protected (it is not sufficient to protect the average healthy adult; children and the sick must also be considered; moreover, the protection of future generations has to be assured),
• Definition of the acceptable excess health risk caused from the uranium mining legacy,
• Definition of the period of time, the reclamation to be carried out has to be efficient in the long-term,
• Provisions to assure authorization only for those reclamation options requiring no active maintenance,
• Fixing of a time limit for completion of the reclamation action.

Compensation claims

• for miners, residents, concerned communities

The details can then be fixed in regulations:

Standards for systematical site monitoring

• Type and extent of the site investigations, monitoring data acquisition, contaminants to be monitored, monitoring periods, etc.
• Quality assurance for the monitoring program

Rules for ranking of hazards

• Set clear priorities in case that reclamation actions have to be deferred due to lack of funds

Dose limits

• Dose-effect ratios to be used for calculation of derived dose units
• Dose limits corresponding to the acceptable excess health risk defined above
• Calculation rules for computing the radiation doses

Reclamation standards

• Standards for the continued release of contaminants (radon exhalation from surfaces, contaminant releases with waste water, dust releases, gamma radiation,...)
• Contamination standards (radon concentrations in free air and in dwellings, contaminant concentrations in soils and groundwater, surface contamination for unrestricted reuse of metal scrap and construction rubble...),
• Determination of measures that are regarded suitable to ensure the confinement of the contaminants during the whole period defined as the long-term protection goal,
• Standards for stability against seismic events, flood, and erosion,
• Determination of measures for the quality assurance of the whole reclamation process,
• Determination of measures for eventual necessary maintenance,
• Determination of measures for long-term monitoring and its financing

Administrative responsibilities and procedures

• Definition of the responsibilities of Federal and State Agencies for the licensing process of the reclamation,
• Definition of the licensing procedures,
• Definition of the legal process

Public participation

• Ensuring free access to all relevant information,
• Ensuring public participation during the planning stage, during the licensing procedure (hearings), and for supervision of the action being taken,
• Supply of funds, to enable concerned individuals, communities, and associations to contract experts of their choice.

Wismut receives DM 700 - 800 million (US$ 500 - 570 million) annually from the German Federal Budget for its reclamation efforts so far. But, Wismut is only responsible for the reclamation of those sites that were not returned to the local authorities before 1962. The communities are responsible for the other sites, but they are not nearly able to pay for their reclamation. The communities should therefore receive compensation for their former Wismut sites from the Federal Budget. This position is also supported by an expert analysis ordered by the Saxonian State Ministry of Environment. At present, the State Ministry is searching for a community that could sue the Federal Government for paying its reclamation cost.

Unlike Germany, most other countries in Central and Eastern Europe, do not nearly have enough funds required for the reclamation of the uranium mining legacy. In some cases, as in the Czech Republic, preparations are at least made for an analysis of the problems and possible management options. The European Union is now obviously willing to contribute to the solution of these problems in the Central and East European countries under its PHARE program [NF Sept. 26, 1994].

(September 1995) This list also contains works not referenced in the text. Literature on uranium ore deposits are not included for space considerations.

General

[BIUran1991] Bürgerinitiative gegen Uranabbau im Südschwarzwald; Bürgerinitiative Oberrothenbach (Hg.): Tagung der Bürgerinitiativen gegen Uranabbau in Europa, Zwickau(Sachsen) 1.-3.8.1991, Tagungsband, Herrischried 1991, 108 p.

[BIUran1992] Bürgerinitiative gegen Uranabbau im Südschwarzwald (Hg.): Sanierung von Altlasten des Uranabbaus, Materialsammlung, Herrischried 1992, 152 p.

[Catchpole1993b] Catchpole,Glenn J; Kuchelka,Rolf A: Sanierung von Grundwasserleitern bei Urangruben mit In Situ-Laugung. In: Erzmetall 46(1993)11, p.644-651.

[EPA1983a] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 40 CFR Part 192 Standards for Remedial Actions at Inactive Uranium Processing Sites. In: Federal Register Vol.48, No.3, Washington, D.C., January 5, 1983, p.590-604.

[EPA1983b] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 40 CFR Part 192 Environmental Standards for Uranium and Thorium Mill Tailings at Licensed Commercial Processing Sites. In: Federal Register Vol.48, No.196, Washington D.C., October 7, 1983, p.45926-45947.

[EPA1987] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 40 CFR Part 192 Standards for Remedial Actions at Inactive Uranium Processing Sites; Proposed Rule. In: Federal Register Vol.52, No.185, Washington D.C. September 24, 1987, p.36000-36008.

[EPA1995] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 40 CFR Part 192 Groundwater Standards for Remedial Actions at Inactive Uranium Processing Sites; Final Rule. In: Federal Register Vol.60, No.7, Washington D.C. January 11, 1995, p.2854.

[Nigbor1982] Nigbor,Michael T; Engelmann,William H; Tweeton,Daryl R: Case History of a Pilot-Scale Acidic In Situ Uranium Leaching Experiment. United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations RI-8652, Washington D.C., 1982, 81 p.

[Norman1993] Norman,R E: Uranium production in Eastern Europe and its environmental impact: A literature survey.. ORNL/TM-12240, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 1993, 28 p.

[NRC1980] U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission: 10 CFR Part 40 Uranium Mill Tailings Regulations: Ground-Water Protection. In: Federal Register Vol.45, Washington D.C., October 3, 1980, p.65521.

[OECD1988] Uranium Resources, Production and Demand, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency/International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Paris 1988, 194 p.

[OECD1990] Uranium Resources, Production and Demand 1989, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency/International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Paris 1990, 358 p.

[OECD1992] Uranium 1991 Resources, Production and Demand, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency/International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Paris 1992, 255 p.

[OECD1994] Uranium 1993 Resources, Production and Demand, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency/International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Paris 1994, 311 p.

[Schmidt1989] Schmidt,C: Groundwater Restoration and Stabilization at the Ruth-ISL Test Site in Wyoming, USA. In: In Situ Leaching of Uranium - Technical, Environmental and Economic Aspects, Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting, IAEA-TECDOC-492, Wien 1989, p.97-126.

[UI1994] Update of the Report from the Working Group on Eastern Europe, CIS and China, Issued January 1994, The Uranium Institute (Ed.), London 1994, 27 p.

[UMTRCA1978] Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act, Public Law 95-604-Nov.8, 1978.

Germany

> [OECD1992] p.130-145

> [OECD1994] p.142-149

[AKURA1993] Strahlenexposition und strahleninduzierte Berufskrankheiten am Beispiel Wismut (2. und erweiterte Ausgabe), Darlegung des Arbeitskreises Uranbergbau und radioaktive Altlasten (AKURA), Berlin, November 1993, 42 p.

[Beleites1988] Beleites, Michael: Pechblende. Der Uranbergbau in der DDR und seine Folgen. Wittenberg 1988, 64 p.

[Beleites1991] Beleites, Michael: Untergrund. Ein Konflikt mit der Stasi in der Uran-Provinz. Berlin 1991, 274 p.

[Beleites1992] Beleites, Michael: Altlast Wismut. Ausnahmezustand, Umweltkatastrophe und das Sanierungsproblem im deutschen Uranbergbau. Frankfurt am Main, 1992, 174 p.

[BMU1993] Bundesminister für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit (Hg.): Strahlenschutzgrundsätze für die Verwahrung, Nutzung oder Freigabe von kontaminierten Materialien, Gebäuden, Flächen und Halden aus dem Uranerzbergbau. Veröffentlichungen der Strahlenschutzkommission Band 23, Stuttgart 1993, 198 p.

[BMU1994] Der Bundesminister für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit: Informationsmaterial zur Sanierung der Altlasten des Uranerzbergbaus, Stand: 15.04.1994. Bonn 1994, 91 p.

[BT1992a] Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Große Anfrage der Abgeordneten Dr.Klaus-Dieter Feige, Werner Schulz (Berlin) und der Gruppe BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN "Auswirkungen aus dem Uranbergbau und Umgang mit den Altlasten der Wismut in Ostdeutschland" vom 27.Mai 1992, BT-Drs.12/2671; Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 12/3309, Bonn 24.9.1992

[BT1992b] Antrag der Abgeordneten Dr.Klaus-Dieter Feige, Werner Schulz (Berlin) und der Gruppe BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN: Verantwortung für die Hinterlassenschaften aus fünf Jahrzehnten Uranabbau - Vorsorge für Jahrtausende, Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 12/3648, Bonn 6.11.1992

[BT1993a] Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten Christoph Matschie u.a. - Drucksache 12/4515: Umweltbelastungen und Gesundheitsrisiken in der Wismut-Region, Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 12/4780, Bonn 22.4.1993

[BT1993b] Antwort des Staatssekretärs Clemens Stroetmann vom 23.2.1993 auf die Frage der Abgeordneten Siegrun Klemmer (SPD), Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 12/4344, Nr.116

[BT1994] Antrag der Abgeordneten Siegrun Klemmer u.a.: Sanierung der radioaktiven Altlasten in den Bundesländern Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Sachsen, Thüringen und Brandenburg, Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 12/8030, Bonn 21.6.1994

[Czarwinski1991] Czarwinski,R; Lehmann,R: Die Strahlenexposition durch Radon und Radon-Folgeprodukte in Gebäuden der Bergbaugebiete in Sachsen und Thüringen und eine Analyse der Ursachen. In: Jacobs,H; Bonka,H (Hg.): Strahlenschutz und Umwelt, Band I, Jubiläumstagung, Aachen, 30.September - 3.Oktober 1991, Köln, p.313-323.

[Diehl1991w] Uranabbau im Westen Deutschlands; in [BIUran1991] p.47-50

[Hähne1993] Hähne,R; Altmann,G: Principles and Results of Twenty Years of Block-Leaching of Uranium Ores by Wismut GmbH, Germany. In: Uranium In Situ Leaching, IAEA-TECDOC-720, Wien, 1993, p.43-54

[HaldenAnO1980] Anordnung zur Gewährleistung des Strahlenschutzes bei Halden und industriellen Absetzanlagen und bei der Verwendung darin abgelagerter Materialien vom 17.November 1980, Gesetzblatt der DDR Teil I, Nr.34, Ausgabetag: 17.Dezember 1980, p.347-350

[Hanisch1994] Hanisch, Christiane; Lohse,Maritta; Müller,Ansgar; Zerling,Lutz: Spurenelemente in Flußschlämmen der Weißen Elster und ihrer Nebengewässer. In: Spektrum der Wissenschaft, Mai 1994, p.98-102

[Heinemann1992] Heinemann,L et al.: Gesundheitsrisiken durch Strahlenexposition in den Südbezirken der ehemaligen DDR. BMU-1992-354, 1992, 144 p.

[Heinrich1992] Heinrich,J et al.: Lungenkrebsrisiko durch Radon in Wohnräumen - eine Fall-Kontroll-Studie in Thüringen und Sachsen. In: Forum Städte-Hygiene 43(1992) März/April p. 95-97

[Jacobi1992] Jacobi,W et al.: Verursachungs-Wahrscheinlichkeit von Lungenkrebs durch die berufliche Strahlenexposition von Uran-Bergarbeitern der WISMUT AG. Gutachterliche Stellungnahme im Auftrage der Berufsgenossenschaften. Köln, 1992, 58 p.

[Karlsch1993] Karlsch, Rainer: "Ein Staat im Staate". Der Uranbergbau der Wismut AG in Sachsen und Thüringen. In: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, Beilage zur Wochenzeitung Das Parlament, Nr. B 49-50/93, 3. Dezember 1993, p.14-23

[Keller1991] Keller,G; Schütz,M: Untersuchungen in "High Radon Areas" in Deutschland. In: Jacobs,H; Bonka,H (Hg.): Strahlenschutz und Umwelt, Band I, Jubiläumstagung, Aachen, 30.September - 3.Oktober 1991, Köln, p.324-329.

[Küppers1991] Küppers,Christian: Vergleich der Strahlenschutzgrenzwerte nach der Verordnung über die Gewährleistung von Atomsicherheit und Strahlenschutz (DDR-Recht) mit der Strahlenschutzverordnung der BRD, Darmstadt 1991, 15 p.

[Küppers1994] Küppers,Christian; Schmidt,Gerhard: Strahlenschutzaspekte bei Altlasten des Uranbergbaus in Thüringen und Sachsen, Öko-Institut, Werkstattreihe Nr.86, Darmstadt, 1994, 82 p.

[Paul1991] Paul, Reimar: Das Wismut-Erbe. Geschichte und Folgen des Uranbergbaus in Thüringen und Sachsen. Göttingen 1991, 191 p.

[Pfueller1994] Pfueller,B: Die Hinterlassenschaften der Wismut in Sachsen und Thüringen, in: Blick durch Wirtschaft und Umwelt, Sonderausgabe Oktober 1994, Vol.4, p.6-11.

[Schmidt1994] Schmidt,Gerhard; Küppers,Christian: Stellungnahme zu den Meßergebnissen des Bundesamtes für Strahlenschutz aus Proben im Raum Ronneburg (Stand: 15.11.1994), Öko-Institut, Darmstadt, 1994, 36 p.

[SSK1993t] Strahlenschutzkriterien für die Nutzung von möglicherweise durch den Uranbergbau beeinflußten Wässern als Trinkwasser - Empfehlung der Strahlenschutzkommission, Bundesanzeiger Nr.94 vom 22.Mai 1993, p.4680.

[SSK1994r] Strahlenschutzgrundsätze zur Begrenzung der Strahlenexposition durch Radon und seine Zerfallsprodukte in Gebäuden. Empfehlung der Strahlenschutzkommission. Verabschiedet in der 124.Sitzung der Strahlenschutzkommission am 21./22.April 1994

[Stein1993] Stein,Renate; Krompraß,Reiner; Dagen,Elenor; Hüttig,Wilfried; Bothe,Matthias: Untersuchungen zum Gehalt natürlicher radioaktiver Stoffe in ausgewählten Pflanzen als Voraussetzung für die Bewertung der radiologischen Situation im ostthüringischen Raum. In: Die Altlasten des Uranerzbergbaus und der Uranerzaufbereitung, Veröffentlichungen des Naturkundemuseums Gera, Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe, Heft 20/1993, Gera 1993, p.85-97.

[StrlSchV1989] Verordnung über den Schutz vor Schäden durch ionisierende Strahlen (Strahlenschutzverordnung - StrlSchV), 30.6.1989, Bundesgesetzblatt I, p.1321

[VOAS1984] Verordnung über die Gewährleistung von Atomsicherheit und Strahlenschutz vom 11.Oktober 1984, Gesetzblatt der DDR Teil 1, Nr.30 vom 21.November 1984, p.341-348

[VOASDB1984] Durchführungsbestimmung zur Verordnung über die Gewährleistung von Atomsicherheit und Strahlenschutz vom 11.Oktober 1984, Gesetzblatt der DDR Teil 1, Nr.30, Ausgabetag 21.November 1984, p.348-372

[Wismut1990] SDAG Wismut (Hg.): Seilfahrt - Auf den Spuren des Sächsischen Uranbergbaus, Haltern, 1990, 152 p.

[Wismut1992a] Sanierungskonzept Sanierungsbetrieb Aue, Stand vom September 1992, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1992, 128 p.

[Wismut1992c] Sanierungskonzept Sanierungsbetrieb Seelingstädt, Standort Crossen, Stand vom September 1992, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1992, 148 p.

[Wismut1992g] Sanierungskonzept Sanierungsbetrieb Königstein, Standort Dresden-Gittersee, Stand vom September 1992, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1992, 73 p.

[Wismut1992k] Sanierungskonzept Sanierungsbetrieb Königstein, Standort Königstein, Stand vom September 1992, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1992, 123 p.

[Wismut1992r] Sanierungskonzept Sanierungsbetrieb Ronneburg, Stand vom September 1992, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1992

[Wismut1992s] Sanierungskonzept Sanierungsbetrieb Seelingstädt, Standort Seelingstädt, Stand vom September 1992, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1992

[Wismut1993s] Ergebnisse der Umweltüberwachung und Sanierungstätigkeit 1992, Sanierungsbetriebe Freistaat Sachsen, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1993

[Wismut1993t] Ergebnisse der Umweltüberwachung und Sanierungstätigkeit 1992, Sanierungsbetriebe Land Thüringen, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1993

[Wismut1994a] Ergebnisse der Umweltüberwachung und Sanierungstätigkeit 1993, Sanierungsbetrieb Aue, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1994

[Wismut1994c] Ergebnisse der Umweltüberwachung und Sanierungstätigkeit 1993, Sanierungsbetrieb Seelingstädt, Betriebsteil Crossen, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1994

[Wismut1994k] Ergebnisse der Umweltüberwachung und Sanierungstätigkeit 1993, Sanierungsbetrieb Königstein, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1994

[Wismut1994r] Ergebnisse der Umweltüberwachung und Sanierungstätigkeit 1993, Sanierungsbetrieb Ronneburg, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1994

[Wismut1994s] Ergebnisse der Umweltüberwachung und Sanierungstätigkeit 1993, Sanierungsbetrieb Seelingstädt, Betriebsteil Seelingstädt, Wismut GmbH, Chemnitz 1994

Czech Republic, Slovakia

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[Andel1991] Andel,Petr: The Influence of the Uranium Industry on the Environment of the Stráz p.Ralskem-Hamr Region. MEGA - Institute of Research and Development (Ed.), Stráz pod Ralskem 1991, 23 p.

[Andel1993] Andel,Petr; Pribán,Václav: Environmental restoration of uranium mines and mills in the Czech Republic. Paper presented at the Budapest Workshop, Sept.93. IAEA (Ed.), Wien 1993, 23 p.

[Andel1994] Andel,Petr; Pribán,Václav: Planning for environmental restoration of contaminated sites of the uranium industry in the Czech Republic. Paper presented at the Piestany Workshop, Apr.94. IAEA (Ed.), Wien 1994, 27 p.

[Benes1993] Benes,V: In Situ Leaching of Uranium in North Bohemia. In: IAEA (Ed.), Uranium in situ leaching. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting held in Vienna, 5-8 October 1992, IAEA-TECDOC-720, Wien 1993, p.55-63

[Bossew1990] Bossew,Peter: Radio-Ecological Investigations in the Surroundings of MAPE uranium Ore Processing Plant Near Ceské Budejovice in Southern Bohemia (CSFR). Österreichisches Ökologieinstitut (Ed.), OEI-GAM-24, Wien 1990, 51 p.

[Bossew1991] Bossew,Peter: Umweltbelastungen durch die Uranerzaufbereitungsanlage MAPE bei Budweis. In: [BIUran1991] p.55-57

[Chmelevsky1994] Chmelevsky,D; Barclay,D; Kellerer,A M; Tomasek,L; Kunz,E; Placek,V: Probability of causation for lung cancer after exposure to radon progeny: A comparison of models and data. In: Health Physics 67 (1994) 1, p.15-23

[Fiedler1993] Fiedler,J; Slezák,J: Experience With the Coexistence of Classical Deep Mining And In-Situ Leaching of Uranium in Northern Bohemia. In: IAEA (Ed.), Uranium in situ leaching. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting held in Vienna, 5-8 October 1992, IAEA-TECDOC-720, Wien 1993, p.115-128

[Hudecek1993] Hudecek,V; Kühn,Petr; Lusk,K: Die Absetzanlage der Uranerz-Aufbereitungsanlage der DIAMO in Stráz pod Ralskem, Tschechische Republik. DIAMO - státní podnik (Hg.), Stráz pod Ralskem 1993, 22 p.

[Kühn1993] Kühn,Petr: Environmental Aspects of the Operation and Sanation of the ISL Uranium Mining at Stráz pod Ralskem, Czechoslovakia. In: IAEA (Ed.), Uranium in situ leaching. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting held in Vienna, 5-8 October 1992, IAEA-TECDOC-720, Wien 1993, p.181-190

[Moldan1991] Moldan,Bedrich et al.: Environment of the Czech Republic, Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic, Brno 1991, 315 p.

[Sevc1988] Sevc,Josef; Kunz,Emil; Tomásek,Ladislav; Placek,Václav; Horácek,Jirí: Cancer in man after exposure to Rn daughters. In: Health Physics 54 (1988) 1, p.27-46

[Sevc1993] Sevc,J; Tomásek,L; Kunz,E; Placek,V; Chmelevsky,D; Barclay,D; Kellerer,A M: A survey of the Czechoslovak follow-up of lung cancer mortality in uranium miners. In: Health Physics 64 (1993) 4, p.355-369

[Strásky1991] Strásky,Dalibor: Die Uranerzaufbereitungsanlage MAPE (CSFR). In: [BIUran1991] p.53-54

[Tomásek1993] Tomásek,Ladislav; Darby,Sarah C; Swerdlow,Anthony J; Placek,Václav; Kunz,Emil: Radon exposure and cancers other than lung cancer among uranium miners in West Bohemia. In: The Lancet 341 (1993) April 10, p.919-923

[Tomásek1994] Tomásek,L; Darby,S C; Fearn,T; Swerdlow,A J; Placek,V; Kunz,E: Patterns of lung cancer mortality among uranium miners in West Bohemia with varying rates of exposure to radon and its progeny. In: Radiation Research 137 (1994), p.251-261

[USTDA1993] Preliminary Remedial Action Plan for Groundwater Remediation: Stráz pod Ralskem Site, Northern Bohemia, Czech Republic.. U.S. Trade and Development Agency (Ed.), Washington, D.C. 1993, 95 p.

Poland

[Chruscielewski1994] Chruscielewski,Wojciech: An Environmental Study of Inactive Uranium Mines in Poland. Paper prepared for the Budapest'94 Symposium. Lodz 1994, 5 p.

[Mazurski1991] Mazurski,Krzysztof R: Das Problem des Uranbergbaus in Polen. In: [BIUran1991] p.58-59

Hungary

> [OECD1994] p.153-156

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Rumania

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> [UI1994] p.5

[Ghilea1994] Ghilea,S; Coroianu,A; Fekete,F: Environmental radioactive contamination caused by uranium ore mining in Romania. In: European Commission (Ed.), Proceedings International Symposium Remediation and Restoration of Radioactive-contaminated Sites in Europe, Antwerp, 11-15 October 1993, Vol.I, Radiation Protection - 74, Luxembourg 1994, p.143-151

[Râmboiu1993] Râmboiu,S: Indoor radon-222 daughters concentration in the vicinity of an uranium mine. In: Fachverband für Strahlenschutz e.V. (Hg.), Umweltradioaktivität, Radioökologie, Strahlenwirkungen. Band I. 25.Jahrestagung Binz auf Rügen, 28.-30.September 1993, FS-93-67-T;ISBN 3-8249-0169-2, Köln 1993, p.140-144

[RSRP1993] Man modified natural radioactivity and risks for the health of the population - Abstracts, Baile Felix (Bihor), Romania, 29 September - 1 October 1993. [in Rumanian and English]. Romanian Society for Radiological Protection (Ed.), Bucharest, Romania 1993, 100 p.

Bulgaria

> [OECD1994] p.93-98

> [UI1994] p.1

[Dimtchev1991] Dimtchev,Todor: Radioaktive Belastung in der Umgebung der Stadt Sofia - im Gebiet der Dörfer Yana, Gorni Bogrov und Dolni Bogrov - als Folge der Anreicherung von Rückständen, die bei der Aufbereitung von Uranerz in der chemischen Fabrik in der Stadt Boukhovo entstehen. In: [BIUran1991] p.66-74

[Kerbélov1991] Kerbélov,L; Dayski,K; Ranguélov,R: Anwendung der Aero-Gamma-Spektrometrie in der Republik Bulgarien zur Überwachung der Umweltkontamination durch die uranerzverarbeitende Industrie. In: [BIUran1991] p.75-77

[Kuzmanov1993] Kuzmanov,L; Simov,S D; Valkov,T; Vasilev,D: In-Situ Leaching of Uranium in Bulgaria: Geological, Technological and Ecological Considerations. In: IAEA (Ed.), Uranium in situ leaching. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting held in Vienna, 5-8 October 1992, IAEA-TECDOC-720, Wien 1993, p.65-73

[Pressyanov1991] Pressyanov,D S: Skin dose for workers in uranium milling. In: Radiation Protection Dosimetry 38 (1991) 4, p.315-318

[Simov1992] Simov,S D; Bojkov,I B: Case histories and new areas for uranium exploration in Bulgaria. In: IAEA (Ed.), New developments in uranium exploration, resources, production and demand. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting, Vienna, 26-29 August 1991, IAEA-TECDOC-650, Wien 1992, p.81-88

[Tabakov1993] Tabakov,B: Complete Mining of Uranium Deposits in Bulgaria by In-Situ Leaching Mining Systems Used After Conventional Mining. In: IAEA (Ed.), Uranium in situ leaching. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting held in Vienna, 5-8 October 1992, IAEA-TECDOC-720, Wien 1993, p.105-114

[Vapirev1994] Vapirev,E I; Dimitrov,M; Minev,L; Boshkova,T; Pressyanov,D S; Guelev,M G: Radioactive sites in Bulgaria contaminated with radium and uranium. In: European Commission (Ed.), Proceedings International Symposium Remediation and Restoration of Radioactive-contaminated Sites in Europe, Antwerp, 11-15 October 1993, Vol.II, Radiation Protection - 74, Luxembourg 1994, p.929-954

Ukraine

> [OECD1994] p.251-257

> [UI1994] p.6

Russia

> [OECD1994] p.213-223

[Karamushka1993] Karamushka,V P; Ostroborodov,V V: Rehabilitation of contaminated territories while liquidating enterprises of uranium mining industry of the CIS. In: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Ed.), Environmental Remediation and Environmental Management Issues, Proceedings of the 1993 International Conference on Nuclear Waste Management and Environmental Remediation, Prague, Czech Republic, September 5-11, 1993, Vol.3, New York 1993, p.523-526

[Laverov1992] Laverov,N P; Velichkin,V I; Vetrov,V I; Krotkov,V V; Lapin,A L; Naumov,S S; Pelminev,M D; Shumilin,M V: Uranium resources of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. In: IAEA (Ed.), New developments in uranium exploration, resources, production and demand. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting, Vienna, 26-29 August 1991, IAEA-TECDOC-650, Wien 1992, p.172-187

[Skorovarov1989] Skorovarov,J I; Sadykov,R H; Nosov,V D: In situ leaching of uranium in the USSR. In: IAEA (Ed.), In Situ Leaching of Uranium: Technical, Environmental and Economic Aspects. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting organized by the IAEA and Held in Vienna, 3-6 November 1987, IAEA-TECDOC-492, Wien 1989, p.143-152

[Skorovarov1993] Skorovarov,J I; Fazlullin,M I: Underground Leaching of Uranium in the Commonwealth of Independent States. In: IAEA (Ed.), Uranium in situ leaching. Proceedings of a Technical Committee Meeting held in Vienna, 5-8 October 1992, IAEA-TECDOC-720, Wien 1993, p.75-80

[Soroka1993] Soroka,J; Molchanov,A: Die langfristige Migration natürlicher Radionuklide in der Abdeckung von Absetzanlagen der Uranerzaufbereitung. In: Fachverband für Strahlenschutz e.V. (Hg.), Umweltradioaktivität, Radioökologie, Strahlenwirkungen. Band I. 25.Jahrestagung Binz auf Rügen, 28.-30.September 1993, FS-93-67-T;ISBN 3-8249-0169-2, Köln 1993, p.37-41

France

> [OECD1994] p.137-142

[Barbaroux1985] Barbaroux,Lucien: La Radioactivité gamma Naturelle et ses Modifications par L'Activité Minière Uranifère en Bretagne Méridionale et Vendée, France. In: Environmental Pollution Series B - Chemical and Physical 9 (1985) 1, p.41-69

[Belbéoch1993] Belbéoch,Roger: Les risques de cancer chez les mineurs d'uranium français. Analyse des dernières publications des experts du CEA. In: Gazette Nucléaire (1993) 129/130, p.10-15

[Bernhard1991] Bernhard,S; Kraemer,G; Zettwoog,P: La radioprotection dans les mines et usines de minerai d'uranium françaises. In: Radioprotection 26 (1991) 2, p.329-349

[Bugarel1991] Bugarel,Jean-Louis: Uranabbau und Widerstand in Frankreich. In: [BIUran1991] p.51-52

[Bugarel1992] Bugarel,Jean-Louis: 45 000 000 tonnes de déchets radioactivs - Les dépôts de résidus de traitement d'uranium en France. In: Info Uranium, Rodez (1992) 55, p.1-36

[Chameaud1986] Chameaud,Jean: Le risque radioactif et sa prévention dans les mines d'uranium de Cogéma. In: Industrie minérale - Mines et Carrières 68 (1986) Mai, p.295-300

[COGEMA1991] Dossier d'information. Sites miniers COGEMA et stockages de résidus et stériles, Novembre 1991. Cogéma (Ed.), 1991, 98 p.

[CRII-RAD1994] Etudes radioécologiques sur la division minière de la Crouzille. Site SIMO de Bessines, Sites de Montmassacrot, Bellezane et Puy-de-l'Age. Synthese. CRII-RAD (Ed.), Valence 1994, 15 p.

[Descamps1988] Descamps,B; Foulquier,L: Natural radioactivity in the principal constituents of French river ecosystems. In: Radiation Protection Dosimetry 24 (1988) 1/4, p.143-147

[Desgraupes1991] Desgraupes,Pierre; Barthelemy,François; Jammet,Henri; Meyniel,Gaston; de Torquat,Christian: Rapport à Monsieur le Ministre de l'Environnement, Monsieur le Ministre délégué à l'Industrie et au Commerce Extérieur, Monsieur le Ministre délégué à la Santé. Commission d'Examen des Dépôts de Matières radioactives (Ed.), 1991

[Donnadieu1992] Donnadieu,Jean-Pierre; Pfiffelmann,Jean-Paul: Réamenagement des sites miniers de la Compagnie Française de Mokta en Lozère Filiale du Groupe Cogéma. Cogéma (Ed.), Vélizy-Villacoublay 1992, 17 p.

[Pradel1984] Pradel,J; Zettwoog,P: Hier et maintenant: la radioprotection dans les mines d'uranium / Yesterday and today: health physics in uranium mines [in French and English]. In: Revue Générale Nucléaire (1984) 1, p.38-57

[Quarch1993] Quarch,H; Kuhlmann,J; Daroussin,J L; Poyser,R W: International Developments in Uranium Mining and Mill Site Remediation. In: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Ed.), Environmental Remediation and Environmental Management Issues, Proceedings of the 1993 International Conference on Nuclear Waste Management and Environmental Remediation, Prague, Czech Republic, September 5-11, 1993, Vol.3, New York 1993, p.461-471

[Tirmarche1993] Tirmarche,M; Raphalen,A; Allin,F; Chameaud,J; Bredon,P: Mortality of a cohort of French uranium miners exposed to relatively low radon concentrations. In: Br. J. Cancer 67 (1993), p.1090-1097

Spain

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[Caldwell1990] Caldwell,Jack A; Santiago,Juan L: Advances in Uranium Mill Tailings Closure: USA and Spanish Practice. In: International Society for Environmental Protection (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1990 ENVIROTECH Symposium, Vienna, Austria, September 20-25, 1990., Wien 1990, p.255-264

[Carboneras1993] Carboneras,P; Sanchez,M: Design criteria applicable to the environmental restoration of sites affected by uranium mining activities in the past. In: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Ed.), Environmental Remediation and Environmental Management Issues, Proceedings of the 1993 International Conference on Nuclear Waste Management and Environmental Remediation, Prague, Czech Republic, September 5-11, 1993, Vol.3, New York 1993, p.343-347

[Fuente1993] de la Fuente Martín,Pablo; Juan,Antonio Jiménez; Santiago,Juan Luis: Geotechnical Design of a stabilized Uranium Mill Tailings Pile in Spain (FUA). In: Felsbau 11 (1993) 3, p.141-147

[Santiago1993] Santiago,J L; Sanchez,M: Decommissioning and waste disposal methods for an uranium mill facility in Spain. In: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Ed.), Environmental Remediation and Environmental Management Issues, Proceedings of the 1993 International Conference on Nuclear Waste Management and Environmental Remediation, Prague, Czech Republic, September 5-11, 1993, Vol.3, New York 1993, p.193-197

[Santiago1994] Santiago,J L: Remediation of inactive uranium mining and milling sites in Spain. In: European Commission (Ed.), Proceedings International Symposium Remediation and Restoration of Radioactive-contaminated Sites in Europe, Antwerp, 11-15 October 1993, Vol.II, Radiation Protection - 74, Luxembourg 1994, p.541-561

[Santos1992] Santos,Antonio; Martinez,José M; Santiago,Juan Luis: Determination of geotechnical properties of uranium tailings. In: Amer Soc Civil Engineers (Ed.), Proceedings Conference on Stability and Performance of Slopes and Embankments - II, 1992, Vol.31, New York 1992, p.175-191

Portugal

> [OECD1994] p.202-206

Slovenia

> [OECD1994] p.225-229

[Peter1994] Peter,Josef: Umwelteinflüsse eines Uranbergwerks, Radon-Monitoring. Abschlußbericht zu den Radon-Messungen in der Gegend um das Uranbergwerk "Zirovski vrh" in Slowenien. Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Landesentwicklung und Umweltfragen (Hg.), München 1994, 80 p.

Estonia

[Ehdwall1993] Ehdwall,Hans; Sundblad,Björn; Nosov,Vladimir; Putnik,Henno; Mustonen,Raimo; Salonen,Laina; Illus,Erkki; Qvale,Henning: Studies on the Waste Depository of the Sillamäe Plant. State of the art report from the project group. Swedish Radiation Protection Institute (Ed.), SSI-rapport 93-06, Stockholm 1993, 10 p.

[Putnik1994] Putnik,H; Ehdwall,H; Mustonen,R; Qvale,H; Nosov,V; Salonen,L; Sundblad,B: The uranium waste depository at Sillamäe in Estonia. In: European Commission (Ed.), Proceedings International Symposium Remediation and Restoration of Radioactive-contaminated Sites in Europe, Antwerp, 11-15 October 1993, Vol.I, Radiation Protection - 74, Luxembourg 1994, p.131-141

Sweden

> [OECD1994] p.241-243

[Linder1993] Linder,P; Sundblad,B: Remediation of the Closed-Down Uranium Mine in Sweden. In: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Ed.), Environmental Remediation and Environmental Management Issues, Proceedings of the 1993 International Conference on Nuclear Waste Management and Environmental Remediation, Prague, Czech Republic, September 5-11, 1993, Vol.3, New York 1993, p.489-499

[Sundblad1994] Sundblad,B; Stiglund,Y: The Restoration of the Uranium Mine of Ranstad, Sweden. Environmental impact, predictions and monitoring. In: European Commission (Ed.), Proceedings International Symposium Remediation and Restoration of Radioactive-contaminated Sites in Europe, Antwerp, 11-15 October 1993, Vol.II, Radiation Protection - 74, Luxembourg 1994,, p.563-578

Great Britain

> [OECD1990] p.287-293

[Davies1984] Davies, Peter Maxwell: The Yellow Cake Revue, London 1984

Periodicals

NF - Nuclear Fuel, New York

(September 1995) In Europe, uranium mining has generally not taken place in the limelight, although about one third of the world's total uranium production has been produced in Europe so far.

In Western Germany, for example, the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, as well as the nuclear waste problem, have always found high public attention. The origin of the nuclear industry, the uranium mining industry, however, did never find that attention. One reason, obviously is that the uranium used for the German nuclear power plants is nearly completely imported from overseas, and the problems resulting from the uranium industry are thus not obvious in Western Germany.

Quite on the contrary, for example, the situation in France, the largest uranium producer in Western Europe: Here, a nation-wide network of environmental groups opposing uranium mining was already set up in 1979.

In Eastern Germany, there existed vast uranium mining operations; but information on them was not publicly accessible until the young peace and environmental activist Michael Beleites published his underground report "Pitchblend - Uranium Mining in the GDR and its Impacts" in 1988.

The situation changed abruptly with the political changes in 1989. It came to light that in Europe large areas had also been devastated for the production of the source material for the nuclear bomb, and later for nuclear power.

Meanwhile, uranium production has been shut down or strongly reduced in most European countries due to the high production cost. What is left over, are the countless shut-down uranium mines, hundreds of millions of tonnes of radiating waste rock and uranium mill tailings, presenting health risks through release of radon gas and contaminated seepage. This legacy does not only present an immediate hazard, but also endangers future generations for tens of thousands of years.

The time has come that the decisions on the fate of the uranium mining legacy and thus of the future generations must no longer be taken in obscurity.

Open pit mine Le Bosc near Lodève (Hérault, France)

Landscape of piles at Paitzdorf, Ronneburg (Thuringia), May 1990

Waste rock piles at Schlema (Saxony)

Uranium mill tailings deposit in the former Bellezane open pit mine near Bessines-sur-Gartempe (Haute-Vienne, France), January 1992. Contents (at the end of 1990): 844,000 tonnes

The two partial ponds of the Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings deposit near Seelingstädt (Thuringia) before the covering of the dry beaches, September 1990. Total contents: 90 million tonnes

Main dam of the Helmsdorf uranium mill tailings deposit, Oberrothenbach (Saxony)

Former open pit mine Lichtenberg, Ronneburg (Thuringia), June 1992. The ramp leading to the bottom of the pit was constructed from material of the Gessental heap leaching pile.

© Peter Diehl